ALERRT Books
- The Chain of Survival: Responding to an Active Attack by J. Pete Blair and M. Hunter Martaindale
- Active Shooter Events and Response by J. Pete Blair, Terry Nichols, David Burns, John R. Curnutt
- Evaluating Police Tactics: An Empirical Assessment of Room Entry Techniques by J. Pete Blair and M. Hunter Martaindale
Journal Articles
2024
#FalseFlag: Exploring themes in conspiracy theory tweets regarding the Robb Elementary active shooter event
How do conspiracy theories affect the explanation of active shooter events? After confusing and tragic events like active attacks, the public can be more vulnerable to conspiratorial thinking. Two main themes are identified: False flag and Hypothesized reasoning. Results show that many posts following the attack in Uvalde tried to casually explain what happened. But how do these theories affect the people involved in these events?
Arm the educators… but not without conditions: a qualitative assessment of law enforcement officers’ support for armed teacher policies
When discussing options for protecting the safety of those in schools from active attacks, one of the most controversial options is to arm teachers. Without any research to support its efficacy, more than half of the U.S. has authorized policies to arm teachers. The public opinion for this is incredibly divided, but what do the responding police officers think of changes like these? Ten subthemes were identified and were grouped into three larger categories: value of armed teachers, training, and other considerations. Results and implications are discussed further.
Can a Virtual Reality Training Scenario Elicit Similar Stress Response as a Realistic Scenario-Based Training Scenario?
The main benefit of scenario-based training is to create realistic and stressful situations for trainees. Recently, departments have started to use virtual reality (VR) to also create scenario training for officers. The aim of this study is to explore whether virtual reality can also induce stress in the same ways an in-person scenario can. Salivary markers of stress were collected before and after a participant experienced either the VR or the in-person scenario. Results were compared and overall stress responses were shown to be similar, thus further implications for training are discussed.
Impact of L-theanine and L-tyrosine on markers of stress and cognitive performance in response to a virtual reality based active shooter training drill
The ingestion of L-theanine and L-tyrosine has been shown to reduce salivary stress markers and improve cognitive performance. This study aims to take a closer look at if that is true while performing a mental stress challenge in virtual reality. Participants were randomly assigned doses or placebo, then performed a virtual reality active shooter training drill. Saliva samples were taken before and after the drill and results were compared. It was found that L-theanine and L-tyrosine did not affect the markers of stress but could impact cognitive performance.
Stress response to virtual reality based active shooter training: Impact of caffeine consumption
Virtual reality based active shooter training drills have
been shown to induce stress in participants, but how does caffeine consumption affect
these results? Caffeine can result in better physical and cognitive performance,
so could it perform similarly in a virtual reality situation? Participants were
randomly assigned caffeine or a placebo, and saliva samples were taken before
and after performing a mental stress task in a virtual reality active shooter scenario.
Results show that caffeine consumption increased levels of
α-amylase after performing the mental stress task.
Oh, @#%$!: a replication and expansion of Martaindale et al. (2023)
A previous study looking into the effects of an officer’s use of vulgar language during use of force is elaborated on further. Originally, the lack of audio in videos shown during the study was highlighted as a limitation. Now, audio was added over each video condition showing use of force, and the study was replicated. Results proved to be similar, showing that public perception of use of force is affected by the use of profanity by the officer. With the presence of vulgar language, regardless of if only read or heard, being perceived as less reasonable.
2023
Risk Factors for Cardiometabolic Disease in Professional Firefighters
Firefighters are often diagnosed with cardiometabolic
disease, which is linked to multiple risk factors. This study looks into how
markers of oxidative stress, inflammation, and insulin resistance can also have
information vital to cardiometabolic disease risk. Multiple fitness metrics were taken from firefighters of various years of experience, and the results show an importance of a strong cardiorespiratory fitness and low waist circumference could reduce the markers of cardiovascular disease.
Slow Breathing Reduces Biomarkers of Stress in Response to a Virtual Reality Active Shooter Training Drill
Police, military, and firefighters often experience life-threatening situations. These individuals are trained to use slow breathing techniques while encountering these stressful situations but there is no evidence that tests the effects of these techniques in virtual reality active shooter drills. This study measures biomarkers of stress in response to being assigned one of two slow breathing methods or normal breathing. It is shown that both slow breathing methods resulted in much lower stress markers when compared to normal breathing practices.
Wait for backup or not? How police officers view their role when responding to and active shooter event
If there is an active threat to the public, would police officers wait for more officers to arrive before approaching? This study gathered 796 officers from over 43 states and presented various hypothetical attack situations. Respondents were 14 to 80 times more likely to agree with the hypothetical officer’s decision to approach an attack immediately if a driving force was present. Driving force typically includes things like gunfire or injured victims. If there is an ongoing threat, law enforcement agreed with the public that officers should immediately enter.
Successfully security a classroom door: Evaluating two types of door locks
Can the type of door lock have an impact on someone’s ability to quickly and accurately secure? This study assessed two types of door
locks, one that used a push button from the inside to lock the door and another that required a key to activate the lock. Results showed that simple,
push-button door locks can be secured with fewer errors and faster than a keyed door lock. Policy recommendations are included.
2022
SHOULD FIREARMS BE ALLOWED IN K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOLS? AN ANALYSIS OF LAW ENFORCEMENT’S PERCEPTIONS OF ARMED TEACHER POLICIES
Active shooter events occurring in schools generate widespread public concern and a demand to “do something.” One such policy that has gained traction following the 2018 shooting in Parkland, FL is arming teachers. This study used a nationally drawn sample of law enforcement. Ultimately, we found that law enforcement overwhelmingly supports armed teacher policies, but the support is contingent upon concerns related to training.
View the article here.
ARMED AND CONSIDERED CAPABLE? LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS’ ATTITUDES ABOUT ARMED TEACHER POLICIES IN THE UNITED STATES
This project utilized a nationally drawn sample of law enforcement officers to answer questions regarding their attitudes about armed teacher policies. Law enforcement officers provided insights on their attitudes regarding the capabilities of armed teachers, training considerations, as well as firearm and proficiency certification policies. This project utilized a nationally drawn sample of law enforcement officers to answer questions regarding their attitudes about armed teacher policies. Law enforcement officers provided insights on their attitudes regarding the capabilities of armed teachers, training considerations, as well as firearm and proficiency certification policies.
VIRTUAL REALITY BASED ACTIVE SHOOTER TRAINING DRILL INCREASES SALIVARY AND SUBJECTIVE MARKERS OF STRESS
Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a training tool for law enforcement. While VR is expected to provide a stressful environment for law enforcement to train, little is known about the acute stress response from VR exposure. This study examined the impact of participating in a VR-based active shooter scenario on markers of physiological stress using salivary based measures of stress (e.g., alpha-amylase and secretory immunoglobulin-A [SIgA]). Participating in the VR active shooter scenario resulted in an increase in salivary stress markers.
HOW POLICE OFFICERS ARE SHOT AND KILLED DURING ACTIVE SHOOTER EVENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR RESPONSE AND TRAINING
Active shooter events have driven police to change how they respond to events where an attacker is actively engaged in killing civilians. This paper examines these changes through the lenses of Normal Accident Theory (NAT) and Resilience Engineering (RE). Our results show a police officer is shot in one out of every six active shooter events in the United States. We apply RE to better understand how these shootings occur so that police can improve their ability to anticipate, monitor, and respond during these attacks.
Uvalde Texas - After Actions
Part 1: View the article here
What Are We Talking About? Definitional Confusion Within Active and Mass Shooting Research
Active-shooting events have become a big topic for many, including practitioners, researchers, and the media. With so many points of view, there is usually some confusion around what exactly some of the defining characteristics of these events are. The purpose of this paper is to explore and elaborate more to define these cases with recorded examples. Databases that exist are discussed as well, along with their inclusion criteria.
Firefighters With Higher Cardiorespiratory Fitness Demonstrate Lower Markers of Cardiovascular Disease Risk
A stronger cardiorespiratory fitness level is associated with lower oxidative stress and cardiovascular disease. Yet this correlation has not been studied in firefighters. This study examines firefighters with higher and lower cardiorespiratory levels and their corresponding risk for cardiovascular disease. It was found that high fitness firefighters show significantly lower markers of cardiovascular disease risk and should maintain high cardiorespiratory fitness.
@#%$!: The Impact of Officer Profanity on Civilians’ Perception of What Constitutes Reasonable Use of Force
Does an officer’s use of profanity affect how the public responds and reacts to a use of force incident? This study examines two scenarios that show excessive language or a lack of language. The results from 234 responses show that the people considered the exact same video with excessive language to be less reasonable. Possible policy discussions are included due to police officer language can affect civilian perception.
2021
Women demonstrate lower markers of stress and oxidative stress during active shooter training drill
Police frequently engage in high-stress situations that increase a variety of physiological and psychological stress markers. The current study examined differences in male and female salivary and blood markers of stress in response to an active shooter training drill that involved professional actors playing the role of one gunman and four victims. Thirty-one participants took part in the training drill. Blood and saliva samples were collected prior to and following the 50-second training drill. Results revealed increases in stress levels for both male and female participants. However, four of the seven stress markers were lower in female participants compared to male participants.
Improving the accuracy of firearm identification in a dynamic use of force scenario
Use-of-force decisions must often be made in a matter of seconds (or less). The presence of a weapon may impact this decision-making process. Therefore, the speed and accuracy of weapon identification is especially important in use-of-force scenarios. The current study examined whether a brief vision-training program could increase the speed and accuracy in which participants identify an object as a gun in a use-of-force scenario. Results revealed that the participants who received the training were about 16 percent faster and made about 33 percent less errors when identifying the object compared to the participants who did not receive the training. These findings suggest that a simple vision-training program can significantly improve participants’ ability to correctly identify the presence of a firearm in a dynamic use-of-force scenario.
AN EVALUATION OF LIGHT POSITIONING ON SUSPECT ACCURACY IN LOW LIGHT ENVIRONMENTS
Police are sometimes required to conduct searches for hostile suspects in low light conditions. Police with routinely use a flashlight to help with their search. This study evaluated three of the most commonly taught flashlight tactics to assess if any could reduce the likelihood of a police officer being shot by a hostile suspect. Ultimately, the study found the Dagger technique reduced the likelihood that participants playing the role of a hostile suspect would successfully shoot the officer in a controlled setting.
“Shots fired! We have many people down!”: Common recommendations for managing high-casualty active shooter events in the USA
Responses to active shooter events in our communities have
continued to improve over the years. First responder organizations have used
training to be better prepared for these disasters. Yet, there are still
problems that can arise when responding. The purpose of this study is to
analyze the recommendations given in after-action reports of these
high-casualty active shooter events to try and identify improvements that can
be made by first responders. Three main points are identified and discussed on
a more effective response to these events.
2020
A scientific examination of the 21-foot rule
The 21-foot rule is taught in training across the country to police officers as either a) the minimum distance that a suspect can cross and attack an officer with a knife before the officer can draw and fire his or her weapon, or b) a safe distance to deal with potentially dangerous suspects armed with knives. This article reports the results of four studies designed to test the adequacy of the 21-foot rule in practice. Results do not support the idea that 21 feet is a safe distance for an officer to stop a charging suspect. Further, having officers move while drawing and firing their weapon, as opposed to remaining stationary, may increase officer safety in these situations.
Correlates of the number shot and killed in active shooter events
Although there has been much research on various aspects of active shooter events, little attention has been given to the factors related to the number of people shot or killed in such events. The current study explored these factors. Results generally revealed that as the number of weapons brought to the scene
increased, the number of people shot also increased, and this effect was larger for the number of rifles compared to other weapons. Weapon type and number had
a smaller impact on the number of people killed than on the number of people shot. Schools were estimated to have one to two fewer people shot than other location types. Further, more recent attacks were estimated to have about one fewer person shot and one fewer person killed. Lastly, events in which potential victims stopped the attacker had the fewest estimated number of people shot.
Active shooter training drill increases blood and salivary markers of stress
Police often encounter high-stress situations, such as high-speed chases and other suspect conflicts. The current study examined changes in salivary and blood markers of stress in response to an active shooter training drill. Thirty-one participants took part in the training drill, which included professional actors playing the role of one gunman and four victims. Blood and saliva samples were collected from participants prior to and following the 50-second training drill. Results suggest that a short duration active shooter training drill can increase both blood and salivary marker of stress.
2019
The evolution of active shooter response training protocols since Columbine: Lessons from the Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training Center
The Columbine High School shooting that occurred on April 20, 1999 changed how law enforcement prepare for active attacks. Training centers were created in response to the need for this specific type of training, including the Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training (ALERRT) Center, which was formed in 2002 and named the national standard in active shooter training by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 2013. Since then, ALERRT has trained over 130,000 first
responders from over 9,000 agencies. The current article describes how active shooter training has changed in the wake of the Columbine shooting.
Peek or push: An examination of two types of room clearing tactics for active shooter event response
Solo officer response has become a new trend in active shooter response. The current study evaluates two commonly taught solo officer techniques (the peek and the push) for clearing rooms to determine whether the technique affects the shooting accuracy of the suspect. During a peek entry, the officer keeps as much of his or her body in the hallway, allowing only the head, shoulders, arms, and weapon into the room. Conversely, the officer enters completely into the room when conducting a push entry. An experiment was conducted with 165 student participants playing the role of the suspect. Armed with a training pistol, participants were randomly assigned to a room entry with an officer using either the peek or push technique. Findings suggest limited differences in suspect shooting accuracy between the peek vs. push method of room entry, although officers in the peek condition were moderately more likely to be shot in the head with the training pistols. Findings also suggest that suspects in the push entry are more likely to shoot before the officer than suspects in the peek entry.
2017
Active-shooter events in the workplace: Findings and policy implications
The current article provides an in-depth examination of 105 active shooter events (ASEs) in the workplace that occurred from 2000-2015, which include three main
categories: factories and warehouses (26), offices (29), and retail locations (50). Overall, 619 people were shot, and 282 people were killed in ASEs at businesses during this period. Attacks were more likely to occur during standard business hours, with a spike at 7pm. In all but two cases, the ASE involved a single shooter. Most (55%) of the events ended before police arrival. By contrast, 45 percent of the ASEs ended after police arrival. To promote a safe work
environment, business owners and management may consider (1) utilizing a systematic strategy to detect, assess, and manage individuals that may pose a threat to others (threat assessment), (2) training employees how to respond effectively to ASEs, and (3) making physical security changes to buildings (access control).
Throwing a chair could save officers’ lives during room entries
Conducting building searches and room entries can place law enforcement officers in danger. The purpose of this study was to examine whether throwing everyday objects at suspects could improve officer safety by distracting the suspect. The study involved an experiment using 113 participants playing the role of a suspect hiding in the “blind” corner of a room facing the door. The research team member playing the officer either made a traditional room entry or had another team member throw a chair into the room before making the traditional room entry. Throwing a chair distracted the participant suspects by slowing down their reaction time, although it did not affect their shooting accuracy.
In addition, about one third of participants fired at the chair before officers entered the room. If an officer must conduct a room entry, throwing a chair or other plainly visible object might save the officer’s life.
2011
Reasonableness and reaction time
Decisions made by police officers are typically judged according to a reasonableness
standard. This standard is based on what a well-trained, sensible officer would do in a particular situation. The current article used an experiment to assess the reasonableness of an officer’s response to an armed suspect using 30 participant “suspects” and 24 officers. Each officer in the experiment, with their gun drawn and aimed at a suspect, was presented with an armed suspect who was not initially aiming at the officer. The suspect either shot at the officer or surrendered. Reaction times were assessed, revealing that officers fired at the same time or later than the suspects 61 percent of the time. These results
suggest that, in this scenario, officers cannot reasonably be expected to shoot before the suspect raises his or her gun and fires. Therefore, officers should
avoid situations like the one depicted in the scenario, where they are without cover and distance when facing an armed suspect.